Teaching and learning glossary
Brief definitions are provided with each term and, where appropriate,
selected references are provided.
Adventure-based learning
(see also Experiential learning)
Learning activities focusing on individual growth and team building in
small groups that are designed to illustrate a variety of theoretical
concepts by using specially designed outdoor experiences that can be
applied to real world contexts. Adventure-based learning is a form of
experiential learning.
Rohnke, K. (1984). Silver bullets: A Guide to initiative problems, adventure games, stunts and trust activities. Dubuque, Iowa: Project Adventure in association with Kendall/Hunt.
Rohnke, K. (1989). Cowstails and
cobras II: A guide to games, initiatives, ropes courses and adventure
curriculum. Dubuque, Iowa: Project Adventure,
Inc. in cooperation with Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co.
Brainstorming
Students are invited to quickly and freely generate ideas/associations/responses
to a question or problem or topic. This may be done in a variety of
ways - individually by students on paper and then responses are summarised
on OHTs or the whiteboard by the teacher, or in small groups with one
student writing down the responses for later feedback to the whole
class.
The teacher or scribe accepts all responses without judgement or comment
in order to encourage divergent or lateral thinking.
Buzz groups
Large or small classes are broken into small groups of students
to discuss a particular issue/problem/topic for 5 to 10 minutes. One
student acts
as reporter and/or scribe. Depending on the size of the group, all or
some groups are called upon to report on their discussion. Group generated
points can be summarised by students or teacher on an OHT or whiteboard
or the teacher can provide his or her own solution or summary of important
points. Buzz groups can assist in engaging students in more active learning
and can give them opportunities for practice in problem solving and critical
thinking.
Case studies/case method
(see also Simulations and games)
The presentation of 'cases' or scenarios based on actual practice which
students can discuss to explore possibilities, probabilities and/or solutions.
Case studies are used to develop student ability to solve problems using
new and existing knowledge, skills and concepts. MacLennan (1974) identifies
four phases to case studies:
- scenario, objectives and procedures of case study established
- students read, absorb and make notes on the case study
- in groups of three to six students share their views, knowledge and skills and generate shared solutions
- plenary session to discuss 'best' solutions and teacher draws out underlying principles and problems.
Boehrer, J. & Linsky, M. (1990). Teaching with cases: Learning to question. In M. Svinicki (Ed.), The changing face of college teaching, (pp. 41-57). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
MacLennan, R. (1974). How well do you see the case method? Industrial Training International, 9, 323.
Masoner, M. (1988). An audit of the case
study method. New York: Praeger.
Collaborative/cooperative learning
Learning strategies that involve "joint intellectual effort by students, or students and teachers together" should lead to students "mutually searching for understanding, solutions, or meanings or creating a product" (Smith & MacGregor, 1992). There have been many approaches developed that incorporate principles of collaborative or cooperative learning.
Sharan, S. (Ed.) (1990). Cooperative learning: Theory and research. New York: Praeger.
Smith, B.L. & MacGregor,
J. (1992). What is collaborative learning? In A. S. Goodsell, M.R. Maher & V.
Tinto (Eds). Collaborative learning: A sourcebook for higher education (pp. 9-22). University Park, PA: National
Center on Postsecondary Teaching,
Learning and Assessment.
Computer assisted learning
The use of computers for instruction, described by a range of terms, including the following: CAI - computer assisted instruction; CBT - computer-based training; CMI - computer-managed instruction or, for more interactive learning; CAL - computer assisted learning; IMM - interactive multimedia which involves the use of multiple types of media (audio, video, graphics, animations, text) within a single desktop computer program.
Oliver, R. & Herrington, J. (2001) Teaching and Learning Online. Edith Cowan University: Western Australia.
Kennedy, D. & McNaught, C. (1997). Interactive multimedia and good teaching. UltiBase.
Laurillard, D. (1993). Rethinking university teaching:
A framework for the effective use of educational technology. London:
Routledge.
Computer mediated communication (CMC)
Computer technologies used to communicate in a range of contexts, including educational settings. These technologies include the following:
Asynchronous communication
Discussion boards - allow users to post messages via the Internet in a threaded discussion. Communication is usually facilitated by a lecturer.
Email groups/lists - electronic mailing groups organised around themes, common interests, professional associations, course enrolments etc.
Synchronous (real-time) communication
IRC (Internet relay chat) - located on the Internet, users can engage in direct textual communication in real-time, accessing particular interest group chat lines.
MUVE (multi-user virtual environment) - a more sophisticated version of IRCs, attempting to integrate elements of nonverbal communication into dialogue.
Harasim, L. (Ed.) (1990). Online Education: Perspectives on a New Environment. New York: Praeger.
Ngeow, K (2002). Teacher assessment of computer-mediated discussions. In A.Williamson, C.Gunn, A.Young & T.Clear (Eds), ASCILITE 2002 Conference Proceedings. Auckland: UNITEC Institute of Technology.
Northover, M. (2002).
Online discussion boards - friend or foe? In A.Williamson, C.Gunn,
A.Young & T.Clear
(Eds), ASCILITE 2002 Conference Proceedings. Auckland: UNITEC Institute
of Technology.
Concept mapping
A technique to allow students to visually represent and inter-relate connections and/or relationships between concepts, ideas or information, drawing on existing and newly introduced knowledge. Candy (1991) argues that "when students are asked to draw a concept map linking graphically the relationships between concepts in a particular field, they externalise their understanding and put it in a form that can be read and interpreted by their teacher and peers".
Candy, P.C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Fraser, K. (1996). Student centred teaching: The development and use of conceptual frameworks. HERDSA Green Guide Number 18. Sydney: HERDSA
Novak, J. (1991). Clarify with concept maps. The Science Teacher, 58(7),
45-49.
Critical incidents
Critical incidents from students' own routine practice are used as a focus point for critical reflection and discussion. Any incident can become 'critical' when the student no longer takes it for granted, attempts to position it within a broader context and systematically analyses it.
Burgum, M. & Bridge, C. (1997). Using critical incidents in professional education to develop skills of reflection and critical thinking. In R. Pospisil & L. Willcoxson (Eds), Learning through teaching, (pp. 58-61). Proceedings of the 6th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, Murdoch University, February 1997. Perth: Murdoch University.
Tripp, D. (1994). Critical
incidents in teaching: Developing professional judgement. London: Routledge
and Kegan.
Debate
The division of a class or individuals into groups to represent
particular points of view (most commonly 'for and against') on a controversial
topic.
Each group works to develop an argument to support its allocated point
of view. Students could be invited to argue a view they don't endorse,
engage in the debate in character or through role plays.
Demonstrations
A practical presentation of a process or procedure or skills which is designed to illustrate theoretical principles. Demonstrations require careful sequencing, oral and visual explanations, appropriate illustrations and opportunities for students to pose questions and clarify problems. The demonstration may take place within a lecture or as a supplementary class activity after a lecture.
Boud, D., Dunn, J. & Hegarty-Hazel, E. (1986). Teaching in laboratories. Surrey, UK: The Society for Research into Higher Education & NFER-Nelson.
Forster, F., Hounsell, D. & Thompson, S. (Eds.) (1995). Tutoring and demonstrating: A handbook. Edinburgh: Centre for Teaching, Learning and Assessment.
Ladyshewsky, R. (1995). Clinical teaching. HERDSA Green
Guide Number 1. Canberra: HERDSA.
Experiential learning/experience-based learning
(see also: Adventure-based
learning; Problem-based learning; Project-based
learning)
An approach to teaching and learning that is based on the presumption
that every experience has the potential to be an opportunity for learning.
Students are placed in contexts or environments where they can assimilate
information and develop skills from being personally involved. Experiential
learning strategies include role plays, games and simulations, case studies,
problem-based learning, fieldwork and work-based education.
Boud, D., Cohen, R., Walker, D. (1993). Using experience for learning. Buckingham, UK: The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.
Hutchings, P. & Wutzdorff, A. (Eds) (1988). Knowing
and doing: Learning through experience. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.
Flexible delivery
Flexible delivery is the term used to describe means by which facilitation of effective, student-centred learning may be implemented (such as methods to deliver course content in new and novel ways). Flexible delivery includes the provision of resources and the application of technologies to create, store and distribute course content and enrich communications to enable more effective learning to occur.
UQ Academic Board (2002). Academic
guidelines for flexible learning at The University of Queensland.
Flexible learning
Flexible learning is an overarching approach which emphasises an education where learning opportunities and options are increased and where students have more control over the learning process. It focuses on improving learning outcomes and maximising student engagement in learning by using the most effective, varied and appropriate teaching and learning modes.
UQ
Academic Board (2002). Academic guidelines for flexible learning
at The University of Queensland.
Jigsaw method
A teaching strategy where each student works on one part of a learning task and then works collaboratively with a group of other students to combine the various parts and complete the activity. The learning task/problem is broken into parts and students are asked to work on a response to that part-task individually. Then students working on the same part work in a group together to come up with a response and check their understandings against those of other students. Students then form into different groups in which each of the different parts of the task is represented, and each student explains to the others their response to their part of the problem.
Aronson, E., Blaney, N., Stephan, C., Sikes, J. & Snapp, M. (1978). The jigsaw classroom. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Sharan, S. (1980). Cooperative
learning in small groups: Recent methods and effects on achievement,
attitudes and ethnic relations. Review of
Educational Research, 50, 241-271.
Journals
A formal repository for personal student writing that can be used to promote critical reflection, engagement with and synthesis of course concepts, and learning generally. The process of writing can be more or less 'structured' or 'free', depending upon the learning objectives. There are numerous approaches to journal writing in tertiary contexts, including the use of double-entry journals, dialogue journals, intensive journals, evaluative journals and traditional journals.
Bromley, K. (1993). Journaling: Engagements in reading, writing and thinking. New York: Scholastic Inc.
Peyton, J.K. (Ed) (1990). Students and teachers writing together: Perspectives on journal writing. Bloomington, Ill.
Progoff, I. (1975).
At a journal workshop. New York: Dialogue House Library.
Keller plan/Personalised system of instruction (PSI)
This system of individualised instruction was devised by Fred Keller from the University of Brasilia in the late sixties. Work in PSI courses is divided into between 10 to 20 topics or units and for each unit the student receives a printed study guide. Each unit is to be completed at the student's own pace within a specified time, supplemented by individual help during specified class hours, occasional lectures and tests administered by 'student proctors' (usually students who have successfully studied the course previously). Progression to the next unit is always dependent upon successful 'mastery' of earlier units.
Boud, D.J., Bridge, W.A. & Willoughby, L. (1975). P.S.I. now - A review of progress and problems. British Journal of Educational Technology, 2(6), 15-33.
Keller, F.S. (1968). Goodbye, teacher... Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 78-89.
Keller, F.S. & Sherman, J.G. (1974). Keller plan
handbook. California: W.A. Benjamin.
Learning circles/learning cells
A small group of students who participate in 'free' discussion and exploration of ideas, readings, issues, practice, where all views are valid. A typical learning circle is a group of 5 to 15 people who meet with a facilitator who assists in focusing the discussion. Most commonly used with students who are already practitioners or who bring considerable experience and motivation to the learning context.
'Learning cells' were developed by Marcel Goldschmid (1971) and are a highly structured variation on learning circles. The learning cell is a pair of students who alternate asking and answering questions in relation to commonly read materials. The teacher moves from pair to pair throughout the class, giving feedback and stimulating questions and answers.
Goldschmid, M. (1971). The Learning cell: An instructional innovation. Learning and Development, 2(5), 1-6.
Senge, P. (1994). The fifth discipline
fieldbook: Strategies and tools for building a learning organization.
London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Learning contracts
A structured agreement between student and teacher in which certain expectations, behaviours and outcomes are mutually negotiated to be achieved during a course of study. The student and teacher decide on the what (content), how (strategies and resources), when (timeframe) and evaluation (assessment and criteria) of teaching and student learning.
Anderson, G., Boud, D. & Sampson, J. (1996). Learning contracts: A practical guide. London: Kogan Page.
Tompkins, C. & McGraw, M.
(1988). The Negotiated Learning Contract. In D.Boud (Ed.), Developing
student autonomy in learning, (pp. 172-191).
London: Kogan Page.
Lectures
The term 'lecture' is derived from the medieval Latin lectare, meaning to read aloud. In a tertiary context, a lecture has come to be understood as a public presentation by a teacher to a large group of students. In its most common form, where a teacher speaks without any changes of activity for the whole allotted time, the lecture offers limited opportunities for active learning. A lecture can, however, be a very effective way of teaching and learning if a lecturer includes strategies that facilitate active rather than passive learning. See Ramsden (1992, p. 152) for a discussion of the 'problems with lectures'.
AUTC Project (2002). Teaching large classes website. University of Queensland. http://www.tedi.uq.edu.au/largeclasses.
Brown, G. & Atkins, M. (1988). Effective teaching in higher education. London: Routledge.
Cannon, R. (1988). Lecturing. HERDSA Green Guide Number 7. Sydney: HERDSA.
Gibbs, G. & Jenkins, A. (1992). Teaching large classes in higher education. London: Kogan Page.
Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to teach
in higher education. London: Routledge.
Lifelong learning
Lifelong learning has been defined very broadly as "all formal, non-formal and informal learning - whether intentional or unanticipated - which occurs at any time across the lifespan" (Candy et al, 1994, p.xi).
Candy, P.C., Crebert, G., O'Leary, J. (1994). Developing lifelong learners through undergraduate education. Canberra: NBEET, AGPS.
NBEET (1996).
Lifelong learning - Key issues. Canberra: AGPS.
Metaphor analysis
Students are asked to think of metaphors for a particular activity or topic, as a way of accessing their values, assumptions and theories of practice. Such metaphors can be explored and critically analysed in terms of their experiences. Changes in metaphors over a course of study can signal changes in self-understanding and opportunities for personal and professional development.
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Munby, H. (1986) Metaphor in the thinking of teachers:
An exploratory study. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 18, 197-209.
Micro-teaching
A method that has been used primarily in teacher training but can be adapted to a range of teaching contexts, in which students give a lesson, speech, presentation, or interview and it is videotaped for later review and discussion by a group of students and the teacher. The micro-presentation usually focuses on one skill, for example, asking questions, vocal production, use of body language. Micro-teaching is a form of role playing.
Turney,
C. et al. (1983). Sydney micro skills redeveloped. Series 1 & 2.
Sydney: Sydney University Press.
Peer teaching/tutoring/mentoring/proctoring/supplemental instruction
The provision of academic support for students by more experienced students who are trained and resourced to provide effective collaborative learning experiences. The PASS (peer assisted study sessions) program at The University of Queensland is an example of a peer teaching program. It is a system that "offers first year students a weekly, voluntary study session run by trained second or third year students who have performed well in the target course" (Kelly, 1997).
Cornwall, M. (1980). Students as teachers: Peer teaching in higher education. Amsterdam: COWO, University of Amsterdam.
Kelly, B. (1997). Implementing peer assisted study sessions (PASS)
within faculties at The University of Queensland. University of Queensland.
Problem-based learning
(see also Project-based learning)
Boud (1985) describes PBL as "the idea that a problem should be
presented before learning begins, or, on a large scale, that learning
should be organised around problems which are related to the profession
rather than around the academic subjects that underpin the field".
Birch, W. (1986). Toward a model for problem-based learning. Studies in Higher Education, 11(1), 73-82.
Boud, D. (Ed.) (1985). Problem-based
learning in education for the professions. Sydney: HERDSA.
Project-based learning
(see also Problem-based learning)
This approach's major characteristic is that by the end of a course students
produce a thesis, computer program, design plans, model, portfolio, written
and/or oral report, posters or some other piece of work, either individually
or in small teams. They have been able to explore a topic in depth and
develop skills and processes of an applied nature. The teacher or supervisor
assists in the formulation of the problem or task, the design and conduct
of the project, the ensuing investigations or development and the ultimate
product. This approach is often adopted as a final year culminating course
activity.
Gibbs, G. & Habeshaw, T. (1989). Preparing to teach: An introduction to effective teaching in higher education. Bristol: Technical and Educational Services.
McKay, J. & Emmison, M. (1995). Using learner-centred learning
in undergraduate sociology courses. ANZJS, 31(3), 94-103.
Reflective practice
A systematic approach to improving professional practice that can be facilitated by a teacher in a university course. Reflective practice is a dialectic process in which the practitioner or student identifies the assumptions, values and beliefs that frame her/his practice, and then critically analyses her/his actual practice in terms of such assumptions. The practitioner or student then acts to minimise the contradictions that may exist between espoused theories of practice and actual theories-in-use.
Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Mezirow, J. & Associates. (1990). Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to transformative and emancipatory learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.
Schön, D. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner.
San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Resource-based learning
An approach to learning framed by a set of teaching and learning strategies that primarily employ instructional resource materials. The teacher becomes a developer of instructional materials rather than a facilitator or leader of group learning processes. The materials may be accessed by a variety of media (print, television, video, computer aided learning, audiotape, CD-ROM, videodisc, Internet etc). The Higher Education Council recently claimed (July 1997), that there is "widespread agreement that the new technologies have the potential to serve a larger and a more diverse student body and to make significant improvement in the quality of student learning".
Higher Education Council. (1997). Quality in resource based learning.
Viskovic, A. (1996). An introduction to educational
media. HERDSA Green Guide Number 20. ACT: HERDSA.
Role plays
Largely unstructured situations or scenarios in which students improvise responses to suit their conceptions of the roles they have been assigned. Role plays offer students opportunities for active learning in which they can explore motivations, emotions, develop human relations skills and an understanding of theory in practice.
McKeachie, W. (1978). Teaching
tips: A guidebook for the beginning college teacher. Lexington, MA:
D.C. Heath and Company.
Self-directed learning
Candy (1991) argues that the term self-directed learning "embraces dimensions of both process and product, and that it refers to four distinct (but related) phenomena: 'self-direction' as a personal attribute (personal autonomy); 'self-direction' as the willingness and capacity to conduct one's own education (self-management); 'self-direction' as a mode of organizing instruction in formal settings (learner-control); and 'self-direction' as the individual, non-institutional pursuit of learning opportunities in the 'natural societal setting' (autodidaxy)."
Brockett, R.G. & Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-direction in adult learning: Perspectives on theory, research and practice. London: Routledge.
Candy,
P.C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Seminars
A small group approach in which one student presents a paper on a topic or presents an interpretation or reading of a journal article or text. A discussion of the interpretation and the underlying assumptions and values of the student's presentation then takes place. The seminar works best when all students have some background knowledge of the topic (e.g. by pre-reading or responding to preset questions) and are willing to participate in the discussion.
Habeshaw, S., Habeshaw, T. & Gibbs,
G. (1984). 53 Interesting things to do in your seminars and tutorials.
Bristol: Technical & Educational
Studies Ltd.
Simulations and games
(see also Case studies)
An attempt to model some real-life problem situation (e.g. business,
international relations, clinical or educational settings) in a teaching
context is called a simulation. Where there is an element of some sort
of competition or achievement in relation to a goal, a teaching and learning
activity may be called a game. Students in both engage in the learning
process as active participants rather than passive observers.
Belch, J. (1973). Contemporary games: A directory and bibliography covering games and play situations or simulations used for instruction and training by schools, colleges and universities, government, business, and management. Detroit: Gale Research Co.
Cruickshank, D.R. (1977). A first book of games and simulations. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth Pub. Co.
Saunders, D., Percival, F. & Vartiainen,
M. (Eds) (1996). Games and simulations to enhance quality learning. London:
Kogan Page.
Socratic method
The systematic posing of questions or dilemmas in order to direct students' thinking along predetermined paths. Individuals or groups are asked to pool their thoughts, experiences and responses to arrive at a solution to the question. The emphasis of the questions should be on critical evaluation and problem solving not mere factual recall.
Seeskin, K. (1987). Dialogue and discovery: A study in socratic method. Albany: SUNY Press.
Seiple, G. (1985). The socratic method of inquiry.
Dialogue, 28, 16-22.
Storytelling/narratives
(see Reflective practice)
The use of students' stories about their lives and work as a focus
for all students to engage in critical observation and analysis or
reflective
practice.
Brady, M. (1990). Redeemed from time: Learning through autobiography. Adult Education Quarterly, 41.
Lindesmith, K. (1994). The power of
storytelling. Journal of Continuing Education, 25(4).
Tutorials
(see also Seminars)
A meeting of a small group of students (ideally 12-15) with a tutor,
which has traditionally been a supplementary discussion of the topic
or focus covered in a formal large group lecture. Effective tutorials
will give students opportunities to engage with lecture material in
a more direct and personal way, practise oral and critical thinking
skills,
and clarify content or solve problems.
Abercrombie, M. (1979). Aims and techniques of group teaching. Guildford, UK: Society for Research into Higher Education, University of Surrey.
Habeshaw, S., Habeshaw, T. & Gibbs, G. (1984). 53 Interesting things to do in your seminars and tutorials. Bristol: Technical & Educational Studies Ltd.
Lublin, J. (1987). Conducting tutorials. HERDSA Green Guide
Number 6. Sydney: HERDSA.
Workbooks/learning guides
Written materials for students that are designed
to aid the organisation and learning of materials and promote the application
of knowledge. They
may include diagrammatic representations of information and approach
to content, course structure, learning objectives, assessment outlines,
readings, additional reading lists, outline of expectations of students.
Useful links
http://www.csd.uwa.edu.au/altmodes/to_delivery/critical_pedagogy.html
Alternative modes of teaching and learning - an integrated Web-based
resource from the University of Western Australia, which offers descriptions
of a range of alternative modes of teaching and learning.
Further references on teaching and learning strategies
Chalmers, D. & Fuller, R. (1997). Teaching for learning at university. London: Kogan Page.
Galbraith, M.W. (Ed.) (1990). Adult learning methods. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.
Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. New York: Cambridge.
Knox, A.B. (1987). Helping adults learn. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.
Oliver, R. & Herrington, J. (2001) Teaching and Learning Online. Edith Cowan University: Western Australia.
Seaman, D.F. & Fellenz, R.A. (1989) Effective strategies for teaching adults. Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company.
